ࡱ> U@  $bjbj ~~~~~~~:::8r<$,ddd`,b,b,b,b,b,b,$.R0B,~^$@,~~ ,KKK"~~`,K`,KKa0*~~+ P33H:*D,,0,+'1^'10+~~~~'1~+xdrKddd,,D d5  Exploring Landscape and Process in Antarctica  Has the Antarctic continent always been as cold as today? The earths crust beneath all that ice and snow hasnt always been like this as Captain Scott, one of the most famous Antarctic explorers, discovered. Tragically he and his team died before bringing back to the UK one of the few finds, a rock with leaf impressions, they didnt discard on their fatal journey. Why did they think it so important? The leaf told geologists that temperate rain forests had been growing on this land nearly 300 million years ago and that the land had once been much nearer the Equator. Yes and later even dinosaurs roamed Antarctica too! The Antarctic rocks tell a story of many different environments and climates; in fact, geologically it has only been cold for a very short period of time. It formed part of the super-continent known as  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=G" Gondwanaland that comprised most of todays southern continents. About 180 million years it began to break up and the Earths crust which was to become Antarctica drifted towards the Earths southern pole. Whilst other pieces became parts of South America, South Africa, India and Australia. What is the landscape like today? Antarctica is the coldest continent and its high central plateau is classed as a cold desert. This is because the amount of  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=P" precipitation, which falls entirely as snow, is less than 50mm per year. A massive  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=I" ice sheet, which extends over the sea to form  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=I" ice shelves, covers the bulk of the Earths surface in and around Antarctica. Within these ice sheets there are fast flowing  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=I" ice streams capable of moving ice at up to 1,000 metres per year. On land large valleys which are not completely buried contain  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=G" glaciers like the Beardmore Glacier. This spills out onto the Ross Ice Shelf providing a route for early explorers, like Shackleton, into the interior. However, other valleys are dry and completely free of ice and occur mostly around the edges of the continent and on the surrounding islands. They are known as Antarctic oases but unlike the fertile oases in hot deserts they are some of the harshest places on earth whilst in the very highest areas rocks called  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=N" nunataks peak out from below the ice sheet. Bare rock like this is subject to a process called  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=W" mechanical weathering, which disintegrates and shatters it often by frost action. Lastly Antarctica has many volcanoes, like Mt. Erebus at 4,045 metres; it was seen and recognised as still active by Scotts party in 1912. Today it contains a lava lake with occasional explosive activity. Deception Island, however, is a large  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=C" caldera now flooded by the sea but with sporadic eruptions even though todays tourists frequent it. Evidence from  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=I" ice cores suggests that volcanic eruptions were common during the last 25 million years as the climate deteriorated and the Antarctic ice sheet formed. What are the main factors influencing Antarcticas climate? Scientists estimate it was about 30 million years ago that the current climate began to evolve into the windiest, coldest and driest on Earth. About this time the Southern Ocean began to circulate around the continent and the ice sheet began to develop. Today the main factors affecting the climate are: - its position at the Earths South Pole, the height of the interior mountains, the belt of sea ice which forms during the winter months the strong westerly winds which blow north of the continent. Temperatures, at the coast, even in the summer months (December February) are close to or just slightly above freezing. In winter, however, they are between -10C and -30C but in the high interior temperatures average only - 40C with the lowest recorded on the Earths surface at Vostok at 89.2 C. Cold air sinks causing barometers to rise creating high pressure. The cold dense interior air flows away often down the radiating valleys gathering considerable speed towards the coast; they are called  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=K" katabatic winds. When they meet the lower pressure around the coast they interact and the wind speeds are increased often exceeding 100km/h for weeks on end. These increased wind speeds result in heat loss called the wind chill factor. The dry winds blowing in the interior have little or no moisture in them and what there is falls as snow. Even so the equivalent of 50mm a year has managed to produce over time an ice sheet 4 km. thick. At the coast there is more moisture estimated at about 200mm per year so it is much cloudier but most falls as snow, however, here the main problem is the combination of loose snow and high winds which lead to drifting and blizzards which can last for days. A serious hazard for humans is whiteout when there is an unbroken snow cover, overcast sky and unchanging light that lead to a loss of direction and perspective. What effect might global warming and the Ozone Hole have on Antarctica? For the last 150 years since people began to burn fossil fuels like coal, gas and wood large amounts of gases like carbon dioxide CO, methane and nitrous oxide known as greenhouse gases have been released into the atmosphere. They allow the suns rays to reach the Earths surface but they trap heat that comes from infrared radiation from escaping into space; this is called global warming. In 1995 an intergovernmental panel was predicting that by 2100 there would be a global rise in surface temperatures of 2C and sea levels would rise by 50cm. A second significant change, first detected by the British Antarctic Survey in the 1980s, was the decline in  HYPERLINK "http://www.unlockingthearchives.rgs.org/glossary/?letter=O" ozone in the atmosphere. The ozone layer is on average about 3mm thick and absorbs harmful (UVB) radiation from the sun which causes skin cancer and can damage eyes. The ozone is being depleted by human-made gases called CFCs. They are responsible for creating the ozone hole anything up to 60% during the Antarctic spring and on average reducing it over Antarctica to less than 1mm. Since the peak in 1994 world-wide agreements have begun to see a reduction in ozone depletion. Importantly, the cooling effect of the loss of the ozone has had the positive effect some scientists believe in offsetting the effects of global warming by 30%. 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